1. An attempt was made to explain the mechanism of interaction of particles in an entangled quantum state on the basis of a new model of the Interfering Universe.
p. 5: http://vixra.org/pdf/1606.0150v1.pdf
http://vixra.org/author/bezverkhniy_volodymyr_dmytrovych
"Now, let's try to explain the possibility of interaction of electrons and other particles, which are in an entangled quantum state, what presupposes the existence of any distance between them, for example, 1 m, or 1000 km, it is not essential, the distance can be arbitrarily long. And this distance does not affect the entangled quantum system, the particles of which miraculously know the characteristics of each other. To do this we'll have to simulate our Universe. So, let's imagine our infinite Universe as a finite (for convenience of description) object, such as an ordinary cube. Now let's imagine this cube empty of matter, space-time, and in
general of any fields and other characteristics, there is no matter, and, in principle, anything. Now, let's "insert" an electron in the cube, and at once in the Universe there will appear space-time, weight, variety of fields (gravitational, electromagnetic, and so on), energy and other characteristics. After the electron appeared in the Universe, it came to life, and was born in principle. And now let's specify that the electron is not simply located in the Universe and has specific location and spot size, and its fields (electromagnetic, gravitational, and other existing and unknown) occupy and fill the whole Universe, the entire space-time continuum, our whole infinite Universe. Now let's step by step fill our cube (our Universe) with all elementary particles that exist in the Universe. And there is one condition that must be followed: each elementary particle occupies entirely and completely the whole Universe by its fields, energy and other characteristics, that is each particle completely fills (literally) all the infinite Universe, but at the same time it has certain coordinates (the most probable place of elementary particle detection).
With this description, our Universe, which is infinite in all senses (spatial, energy, time, etc.), will represent a giant interference of any and all elementary particles, a model of the "Interfering Universe". And now the main thing: since each elementary particle occupies (fills) the whole Universe (and at the same time is in a particular place with certain coordinates (its most probabilistic definition in this point, or more precisely in this region of space)), then there is nothing unusual in the fact that when forming an entangled quantum state each elementary particle "knows" the characteristics of its partner in a quantum state. Elementary particles "know" everything about all the other elementary particles since they fill the same Universe (it is their common home). They (elementary particles) constantly interact, interfere, but depending on their characteristics and the characteristics of their partners (coordinates, mass, energy, field, distances between the peak densities of detection, wave characteristics, etc.) form stable bonds (most varied and not only energy) only with certain partner particles.
Based on the foregoing, we can conclude that our Universe, our world more precisely, is an interference pattern of each and every particle in the Universe. Now the wave-particle duality of particles, probabilistic interpretation of quantum mechanical phenomena and other quantum effects of the microcosm become intuitively clear. For example, why there is a non-zero probability of finding an electron, which rotates in a specific hydrogen atom (which is in a particular laboratory), for example, on the Moon. And it is both on the Moon and on the Sun, as well as anywhere in the space of our Universe; it really fills (takes) the whole Universe. But its presence in a particular area, "the density of presence", so to speak (probability of detection), is different at different points of the space.
In the interfering Universe, all elementary particles "know everything" about all the other elementary particles (since they are in the same Universe), but not all of them are suitable for all in terms of formation of various bonds (in energy and other senses). Therefore, only those particles interact, which have a well-defined
set of characteristics for each other and for specific types of interactions. And our world forms as a result of such interactions."
2. Quantum mechanics defines what such a chemical bond. Without quantum mechanics it is impossible. Classical concepts to explain what the chemical bond is impossible (and this despite the existence of four fundamental interactions: the electromagnetic (most important for chemistry), strong, weak, gravity). It is obvious that when the chemical bond formation quantum effects are important. That is, to form a chemical bond is not enough to have two specific atoms with unpaired electrons and the four fundamental interactions, but still need these two atoms placed at a certain distance where quantum effects "help" form a chemical bond. Without quantum effects these baselines (atoms and fundamental interactions) is not enough to form a chemical bond. It is obvious that when the chemical bonds forming, important not only the properties of atoms and fundamental interactions but also the structure of the space-time at distances of several angstroms (scale chemical bond). Quantum effects of the space-time begin to affect the interaction of atoms (the house begins to affect the interaction between residents), without it, explaining the formation of a chemical bond is impossible.
The reason for the formation of the chemical bond is still not clear, in fact, there is no physical justification, as it was at the time of Bohr, since the formation of a chemical bond does not follow from the four fundamental interactions. Just imagine, a chemical bond "does not understand" that it can not be explained normally and quietly exists :). A full explanation of the chemical bond can only be provided by quantum mechanics (in the future), classical approaches simply do not work.
To understand this, it is necessary not to forget what L. Pauling did (L. Pauling, "The nature of the chemical bond", and the work of L. Pauling: Chem. Rev. 5, 173 (1928)), namely Pauling analyzed the interaction of the hydrogen atom and the proton in the entire range of lengths (he admitted that the hydrogen atom and H + on the approach are preserved and showed that the bond is not formed in this case (since there is no exchange interaction or resonance by Pauling)). Only one of the above-mentioned facts actually destroys the classical approach (attraction and repulsion by Coulomb) to explaining the chemical bond. There inevitably follows that the chemical bond is a quantum-mechanical effect and no other.
Imagine a system with two protons and one electron, but if it is treated as a hydrogen atom and a proton, then the bond can not form over the whole range of lengths. But, as Burrau showed, the bond in H2 + is formed (if we consider the system as two protons and one electron), and no one particularly doubts this, since H2 + exists. I particularly emphasize that there is only one electron (there is no inter-electronic repulsion, etc.).
After this fact, further discussions can not be continued, they do not make sense (especially to apply this to the explanation of two-electron bond or aromatic, this is a slightly different level of complexity). But nevertheless, it should be noted that quantum mechanics introduced the concept of "exchange interaction", which had no physical justification (since no fundamental interactions are altered in the interchange of electrons, but should, if a bond is formed) explained the chemical bond (more accurately, "disguised" chemical bond into the quantum-mechanical effect of the "exchange interaction"), by this, confirming that the chemical bond is indeed a quantum-mechanical effect.
The science of chemical bonding is only at the beginning of it's journey, and it is for today's students to make the most significant contribution to the theory of chemical bonding. And this will lead to fundamental changes in understanding both chemistry and physics.
On the basis of modern concepts of quantum mechanics, chemical bonding can not be explained, fundamental assumptions are needed in quantum mechanics itself ...
Theoretical justification of three-electron bond with multiplicity of 1.5 which can be explained by the structure of the benzene molecule and many other organic and inorganic compounds.
Justification of three-electron bond given here:
1. pp. 4-6 http://vixra.org/pdf/1606.0151v1.pdf
2. pp. 1-5 http://vixra.org/pdf/1606.0150v1.pdf
“Now the question is how to explain the existence of the three-electron bond in benzene and other molecules and ions from the point of view of quantum theory. It stands to reason that any placement of three electrons on the same atomic or molecular orbital is out of the question. Therefore it is necessary to lay the existence of three-electron bond in molecules in reality as an axiom. In this case the three- electron bond in benzene can be actually considered a semi-virtual particle. A real particle, such as an electron, exists in the real world for indefinitely long time. Virtual particles exist for the time which is insufficient for experimental registration (strong interactions in atomic nuclei). So we shall call the three- electron bond which really exists for indefinitely long time only in molecules and ions a semi-virtual particle. The three-electron bond as a semi-virtual particle has certain characteristics: its mass is equal to three electronic masses, its charge is equal to three electronic charges, it has half-integer spin (plus, minus 1/2) and a real spatial extension. That is, our semi-virtual particle (the three-electron bond) is a typical fermion. Fermions are particles with half-integer spin; they follow the Fermi-Dirac statistics, and have appropriate consequences, such as the Pauli exclusion principle etc. An electron is a typical fermion, and therefore such distribution in atomic and molecular orbitals is accepted (calculated). It follows that the three-electron bond in benzene is a real fermion in benzene, so quantum calculations can be extended to the molecule of benzene (and other systems) with the use of corresponding fermion (i.e. three- electron bond as a particle) instead of the electron in calculations. Then everything shall be made as usual: the Pauli exclusion principle, distribution in MO, binding and disintegrating MO, etc. Then, there will be three fundamental interactions (between fermions) in chemistry: electron - electron; electron - fermion-three-electron bond; fermion-three-electron bond - fermion-three-electron bond; the calculation of which should ideally lead to the calculation of any system. Following from the above, interaction of two three-electron bonds in benzene (or rather interaction of three pairs) through the cycle is a typical interaction between two fermions in a molecule at a distance of 2,4 Å which is similar to the interaction of two electrons at the chemical bond formation. By the way, two-electron bonds, four-electron bonds and six- electron bonds can be studied as typical bosons following the Bose-Einstein statistics.
…The interaction of two three-electron bonds in a molecule of benzene at a distance of 2.42 Å (on opposite sides) can be explained if we consider these two three-electron bonds as two particles (two fermions) in an entangled quantum state [1, p. 4-11]. That is, these two fermions are in an entangled quantum state. Quantum entanglement is a quantum mechanical phenomenon, in which the quantum states of two or more fermions or bosons prove to be interconnected [2-6]. And surprisingly, this interconnection remains at virtually any distance between the particles (when there are no other known interactions). It should be realized that the entangled quantum system is in fact an "indivisible" object, a new particle with certain properties (and the particles of which it is composed should meet certain criteria). And most importantly, when measuring the spin (or other property) of the first particle we will automatically unambiguously know the spin (property) of the second particle (let's say we get a positive spin of the first particle, then the spin of the second particle will always be negative, and vice versa). Two particles in an entangled state prove to be bound by an "invisible thread", that is, in fact, they form a new "indivisible" object, a new particle. And this is an experimental fact. As for the benzene molecule [1, p. 2-11], if we consider the interaction of all six three-electron bonds as an entangled quantum state of six fermions (three-electron bonds), then the definition of the spin of one of the fermions automatically implies the knowledge of all the spins of the other five fermions, and in closer inspection it means the knowledge of the spins of all 18 benzene electrons that form all the six C-C bonds. In fact, on this basis, the benzene molecule can be used to study the entangled quantum states of electrons (fermions).
…The fact that electrons during the formation of chemical bonds are in an entangled quantum state, is very important for chemistry and quantum mechanical bond calculations. For example, when calculating the two-electron chemical bond of a hydrogen molecule, it will no longer be necessary to consider the movement of two electrons in general, i.e. as independent and virtually any relative to one another. And we will know for sure that in an entangled quantum state, these two electrons can be considered actually bound by an "invisible thread" with a certain length, that is, two electrons are connected and form a new "indivisible" particle. That is, the movement of two electrons in the field of cores can be described by the movement of a point located in the middle of the "invisible thread" (or in the center of a new particle, or in the center of mass, and so on), what should greatly simplify the quantum mechanical calculations. The length of the "invisible thread" will definitely be much less than the sum of the covalent radii of hydrogen atoms, and it is this length that will determine the Coulomb repulsion between the two electrons. The length of the "invisible thread" between electrons in various chemical bonds should not greatly differ, and perhaps it will be a constant for all, without exception, chemical bonds (meaning two-electron bonds), maybe it will be another constant. The three-electron bond can also be seen as an entangled quantum state in which there are three electrons. Then the length of the "invisible thread" between electrons will be different from that of the twoelectron bond. You can also expect that for all, without exception, three-electron bonds the distance between electrons will be the same that is constant. All types of chemical bonds (two-electron, three-electron, four-electron, five-electron, six-electron, and so on) can be seen as an entangled quantum state, in which there are electrons involved in chemical bonding. And interestingly, all entangled particles behave as they should according to the quantum theory, that is, their characteristics remain uncertain until the moment of measurement. From this point of view (the quantum mechanical point), it becomes clear the cause of failure to calculate chemical bonds "on the tip of the pen" with attempts to calculate the speed and energy of electrons and other characteristics. But these characteristics of electrons of the chemical bond (a chemical bond is a quantum entangled system, which contains electrons of the bond) cannot be determined in principle, because it is so constituted the quantum world. Logically, that what is impossible to determine is impossible to calculate in principle, what is confirmed by the history of quantum chemical calculations. That is, all attempts to calculate characteristics of electron chemical bond (speed, power, and so on) were doomed to failure from the beginning. Therefore, in our opinion, it would be more correct to consider the chemical bond as a certain new "indivisible" particle, with well-defined characteristics and spatial extension, which we called a "semi-virtual particle" [14, p. 4-6.]. In particular chemical substance the chemical bond is really indivisible. In addition, such semi-virtual particle is a fermion for the three-electron bond and other bonds with an unpaired number of electrons and total half-integral spin. And the semi-virtual particle will be a boson for the two-electron bonds and other bonds with a paired number of electrons and total integral or zero spin. And the characteristics of a semi-virtual particle (as an integral), we can calculate. These are the characteristics of a semi-virtual particle, such as energy, spatial extension, length, and so on, that are very important for chemistry. Calculations of a hydrogen molecule will actually come to the solution of the movement of one point in the field of two protons, which is similar to the solution of a task for the hydrogen molecular ion H2 + [7-13]. And we can expect that finally the two-electron chemical bond will be calculated "on the tip of the pen”. Besides that, an entangled quantum state clearly demonstrates that the chemical bond is real and that it is neither an abstraction, nor a convenient concept used to describe and explain. Two electrons indeed form a chemical bond (which is a new particle), and they really "know each other's spins", and are in an entangled quantum state. This means that these two electrons forming a chemical bond and connected by an "invisible thread" have their own well-defined characteristics. And this bond (or this thread) is real, but not in terms of energy (if the energy of such bond really exists and is not equal to zero, then its value cannot be compared with the energies of chemical bonds).”
"...Construction of diagrams showing how electrons gravitate (in explaining the interaction through the cycle, etc.) is an attempt to explain the Quantum interaction of electrons by using methods of classical chemistry. It is clear that electrons do not gravitate towards each other (gravitational interaction is neglected), but on the contrary, if they gravitate, a force should exist, as well as an equation for the calculation of this force. In nature, there are only four fundamental interactions:
1. Gravity.
2. Electromagnetic.
3. Strong.
4. Weak.
With neglect of gravitational interaction, it is only electromagnetic interaction and broadly
speaking, Coulomb attraction and repulsion in the molecule (or rather between electrons and nuclei)."
What think?
1. foto. This graphic represents a slice of the spider-web-like structure of the universe, called the "cosmic web." These great filaments are made largely of dark matter located in the space between galaxies. Credit: NASA, ESA, and E. Hallman (University of Colorado, Boulder.
2. foto. How the solar system looks from Sedna. As seen from Sedna, the Sun would form somewhat of an isosceles triangle with Spica to the lower right and Antares to the lower left. NASA, ESA and Adolf Schaller - Hubble Observes Planetoid Sedna.
3. foto. Benzene on the basis of the three-electron bond.
4. foto. Benzene on the basis of the three-electron bond.
I think that you will be interested to read my works about three-electron bond in benzene (‘The aromatic bond is a three-electron bond in flat cyclic systems with a specific interaction of electrons through the cycle.’).
Links to all works:
See pp. 88 - 106 Review (138 pages, full version). Benzene on the Basis of the Three-Electron Bond. (The Pauli exclusion principle, Heisenberg's uncertainty principle and chemical bond). http://vixra.org/pdf/1710.0326v4.pdf
Benzene on the basis of the three-electron bond:
1. Structure of the benzene molecule on the basis of the three-electron bond.
http://vixra.org/pdf/1606.0152v1.pdf
2. Experimental confirmation of the existence of the three-electron bond and theoretical basis ot its existence.
http://vixra.org/pdf/1606.0151v2.pdf
3. A short analysis of chemical bonds.
http://vixra.org/pdf/1606.0149v2.pdf
4. Supplement to the theoretical justification of existence of the three-electron bond.
http://vixra.org/pdf/1606.0150v2.pdf
5. Theory of three-electrone bond in the four works with brief comments.
http://vixra.org/pdf/1607.0022v2.pdf
6. REVIEW. Benzene on the basis of the three-electron bond (93 pages). http://vixra.org/pdf/1612.0018v5.pdf
7. Quantum-mechanical aspects of the L. Pauling's resonance theory.
http://vixra.org/pdf/1702.0333v2.pdf
8. Quantum-mechanical analysis of the MO method and VB method from the position of PQS.
http://vixra.org/pdf/1704.0068v1.pdf
9. Review (138 pages, full version). Benzene on the Basis of the Three-Electron Bond. (The Pauli Exclusion Principle, Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle and Chemical Bond). http://vixra.org/pdf/1710.0326v4.pdf
10. Principle of Constancy and Finiteness of the Speed of Gravitational Interaction and Dark Matter. http://vixra.org/pdf/1806.0136v2.pdf
11. Cosmological Gamma-Ray Bursts as a Result of Simultaneous "Evaporation" of Black Holes. http://vixra.org/pdf/1812.0425v1.pdf
12. Quantum-Mechanical Analysis of the Wave–Particle Duality from the Position of PQS. http://vixra.org/pdf/1812.0486v1.pdf
Bezverkhniy Volodymyr viXra): http://vixra.org/author/bezverkhniy_volodymyr_dmytrovych
Bezverkhniy Volodymyr (Scribd): https://www.scribd.com/user/289277020/Bezverkhniy-Volodymyr#
This screenshots (foto) (most with explanation) see by this link.
Bezverkhniy Volodymyr (Digital Library of Free Books, Movies, Music & Wayback Machine): https://archive.org/details/@threeelectronbond
P.S. Hückel rule (4n + 2) for aromatic systems can be written in a different form, in the form of 2n where n - unpaired number. So, we have: 2, 6, 10, 14, 18, etc. This is also true for the electron shells in the atom and aromatic systems. The principle of the interaction of fermions always one, everywhere.